The Second Battle of Passchendaele, fought from October 26 to November 10, 1917, remains one of the most harrowing and controversial chapters in the history of the Canadian Corps during the First World War. This grueling offensive was the final stage of the Third Battle of Ypres, a prolonged campaign marked by its extreme conditions, relentless rain, and mud that swallowed men, horses, and equipment alike. Ordered to capture the Passchendaele Ridge in Belgium, Canadian forces encountered one of the most treacherous battlefields of the war, pushing them to their limits and testing their resilience against unimaginable hardship. The cost was steep—over 15,000 Canadian casualties—and while the ridge was ultimately taken, Passchendaele became a symbol of both courage and the often futile cost of trench warfare. Historian Pierre Berton observed, “Passchendaele was a place where heroism clashed with horror, a wasteland where courage shone against the bleakest of odds” (Vimy).
Strategic Context: The Objective of Passchendaele Ridge
The offensive to capture Passchendaele Ridge was part of the larger British-led Third Battle of Ypres, initiated in July 1917 with the aim of breaking through German lines in Flanders. Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, the British commander, believed that capturing the ridge would allow the Allies to advance toward the Belgian coast and neutralize German submarine bases, thereby alleviating the threat to British shipping in the North Sea. The ridge itself, overlooking the surrounding flatlands, was a strategically significant position from which the Germans could observe and direct artillery on Allied lines.
However, as months passed, the offensive bogged down under continuous rain and persistent German resistance. The battlefield, churned by relentless artillery fire and soaked by autumn rains, transformed into a quagmire that swallowed everything in its path. By the time the Canadian Corps was called to take Passchendaele in October, the area was a desolate swamp, littered with shell craters, shattered trees, and bodies from earlier assaults. Historian Desmond Morton wrote, “Passchendaele was a field of horror, a place where men fought not only against the enemy but against the elements and the land itself” (When Your Number’s Up).
Leadership and Canadian Command: Arthur Currie’s Reluctance
Lieutenant-General Arthur Currie, who had recently assumed command of the Canadian Corps, was reluctant to commit his men to Passchendaele. Currie, known for his careful planning and his emphasis on minimizing casualties, recognized the futility and danger of the battlefield conditions. He inspected the terrain himself and reported to Haig that taking Passchendaele would cost Canada at least 16,000 casualties. Despite his reservations, Currie was overruled by Haig, who insisted on capturing the ridge to justify the earlier losses sustained by British forces.
Currie’s tactical foresight, however, led him to meticulously plan the Canadian assault to reduce casualties as much as possible. Drawing on lessons from previous battles like Vimy Ridge and Hill 70, he insisted on careful preparation, ample artillery support, and a series of limited, phased attacks rather than a single, large-scale offensive. Historian G.W.L. Nicholson observed, “Currie’s approach at Passchendaele was a battle against inevitability, a struggle to save as many lives as possible in a situation that seemed designed to consume them” (Canadian Expeditionary Force: 1914–1919).
Preparation and Phased Assault Strategy
Currie’s strategy involved dividing the assault into several carefully timed phases, allowing the Canadians to capture objectives incrementally rather than attempting to storm the entire ridge in one attack. This approach required extensive artillery support, and Currie ensured that Canadian gunners laid down a relentless barrage to cover the advancing infantry, targeting German positions and neutralizing machine-gun nests as much as possible.
Currie’s plan also called for the construction of makeshift roads and wooden “duckboards” to facilitate movement across the swampy battlefield. Without these measures, men and supplies would be mired in mud, unable to advance or retreat. In addition, Currie ensured that his troops were thoroughly briefed on the layout of the battlefield and their objectives, so that even in the chaotic conditions, each unit knew its specific role. Historian C.P. Stacey noted, “At Passchendaele, Currie’s foresight and organization turned a slaughterhouse into a battle where every inch was accounted for, every gain hard-won but deliberately measured” (A Very Double Life).
The First Assault: October 26, 1917
The first phase of the Canadian assault on Passchendaele began on October 26, 1917, with the 3rd and 4th Canadian Divisions leading the attack. The conditions were horrendous; men waded through waist-deep mud, often unable to lift their feet from the mire. Artillery craters filled with rainwater, and the shattered landscape offered little cover from German machine-gun fire.
Despite the obstacles, the Canadian troops advanced behind a creeping barrage, using its protective cover to move forward in small groups. However, the mud often slowed or stalled the barrage, causing gaps in the protective screen that exposed the soldiers to German fire. The 4th Canadian Division, tasked with advancing on the northern flank, faced particularly fierce resistance, with German machine guns entrenched in shell holes and fortified positions. Yet the Canadians pushed forward, capturing several key positions by the end of the day, though at great cost.
Pierre Berton wrote of this advance, “Passchendaele was a place where courage was tested against nature itself—a battlefield where even the land seemed to conspire against the men fighting over it” (Vimy). The first assault secured a precarious foothold on the lower slopes of the ridge, but further attacks would be needed to reach the summit.
The Second and Third Phases: October 30 – November 6, 1917
The second phase of the assault began on October 30, with fresh units from the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions joining the battle. These units advanced from the positions captured in the first phase, inching closer to the ridge’s summit. The Canadians faced relentless German counterattacks, and the battlefield remained a nightmarish quagmire where movement was slow and dangerous.
The 1st Canadian Division, advancing on the left flank, encountered intense German artillery fire as they moved toward a series of German strongpoints. The Canadians engaged in brutal close-quarter combat, using rifles, grenades, and bayonets to clear enemy positions one by one. The lack of solid footing made any coordinated maneuver difficult, but the Canadians held their ground, pressing forward in small increments.
On November 6, the third phase of the assault brought the Canadian forces within reach of the crest. The 3rd Canadian Division, which had been held in reserve, joined the final push, capturing strategic points and repelling repeated German counterattacks. The battlefield was littered with bodies, and the mud made any attempt to remove the wounded or retrieve the dead nearly impossible. Historian Desmond Morton wrote, “Passchendaele was less a battle than a test of endurance, where survival depended on sheer will and determination in the face of hellish conditions” (When Your Number’s Up).
The Final Push: November 10, 1917
The final assault on the summit of Passchendaele Ridge took place on November 10, 1917. By this point, Canadian forces had endured almost two weeks of continuous fighting in conditions that were beyond description. The final push was a testament to the resilience of the Canadian soldiers, who faced not only German fire but the ever-present threat of drowning in the mud.
In the end, the Canadians captured the summit of Passchendaele Ridge, fulfilling the objective set by British command. The ridge itself, now a scarred and waterlogged wasteland, offered little strategic value beyond its symbolic importance. However, the Canadians had accomplished what British forces before them had failed to do, securing a hard-won and costly victory. C.P. Stacey captured the essence of the battle’s brutality, stating, “Passchendaele was a place where heroism was tainted by horror, where men sacrificed everything for inches of ground” (A Very Double Life).
Casualties and the Human Cost
The cost of victory at Passchendaele was devastating. The Canadians suffered over 15,600 casualties during the battle, including thousands killed and many more wounded. For the soldiers who survived, the memories of Passchendaele would remain etched in their minds as a place where courage met unyielding adversity. Pierre Berton described the aftermath poignantly: “At Passchendaele, the land swallowed its dead, leaving behind only the memory of men who fought and died for a barren ridge” (Vimy).
The heavy casualties sparked debate and controversy over the strategic value of the ridge. Many Canadian leaders and citizens questioned the necessity of such a costly offensive, particularly given the limited strategic gain. Even Haig’s rationale for capturing the ridge—reaching the Belgian coast—was never realized, as the Allied advance stalled once again. Historian G.W.L. Nicholson noted, “The capture of Passchendaele Ridge was an achievement, but one that came at a price few could justify” (Canadian Expeditionary Force: 1914–1919).
Legacy of the Battle: Courage and Sacrifice Amidst Futility
For Canada, the Second Battle of Passchendaele became emblematic of the courage and sacrifice displayed by Canadian soldiers, as well as the controversial and often futile nature of trench warfare. The battle underscored the strength of the Canadian Corps and their ability to achieve the impossible under the worst conditions, solidifying their reputation as an elite force on the Western Front. Arthur Currie’s leadership and careful planning mitigated some of the casualties, but he remained haunted by the cost, later remarking, “I would not ask any man to endure Passchendaele again.”
In Canada, the battle became both a source of pride and a painful reminder of the human cost of war. It reinforced the growing sentiment that Canada deserved a voice in its own military affairs, independent from British command. The Canadians had proven their resilience and effectiveness, but they had also paid a high price for a victory that seemed, in many ways, hollow.
Historian Tim Cook summarized the legacy of Passchendaele, noting, “It was a victory marked by endurance rather than triumph, a place where the line between courage and tragedy blurred beyond recognition” (Shock Troops). Passchendaele remains a haunting chapter in Canadian history, a testament to the strength and suffering of those who fought on a battlefield that defied all human resilience.
Conclusion: The Enduring Memory of Passchendaele
The Second Battle of Passchendaele stands as a poignant symbol of the horrors of trench warfare, a place where Canadian courage shone amidst the mud and devastation. Though they captured the ridge, the price was steep, with thousands of lives lost for a small rise in a landscape turned to waste. Passchendaele was a battle that highlighted the bravery and sacrifice of Canadian soldiers while raising difficult questions about the conduct of war and the value placed on human life.
For the Canadian Corps, Passchendaele was both a victory and a tragedy, a battle that tested them beyond the limits of endurance. The memory of Passchendaele endures, not only as a symbol of courage but as a reminder of the devastating human cost of war. In the words of C.P. Stacey, “Passchendaele was a place where men walked through hell to reach a ridge, only to find that victory had left its mark in the mud, blood, and sorrow of a barren battlefield” (A Very Double Life).
References
- Berton, Pierre. Vimy. McClelland & Stewart, 1986.
- Nicholson, G.W.L. Canadian Expeditionary Force: 1914–1919. Queen’s Printer, 1962.
- Stacey, C.P. A Very Double Life: The Army in Canada and the Half Century of Conflict. Queen’s Printer, 1960.
- Cook, Tim. Shock Troops: Canadians Fighting the Great War, 1917–1918. Viking Canada, 2008.
- Morton, Desmond. When Your Number’s Up: The Canadian Soldier in the First World War. Random House Canada, 1993.