The Canadian Military from the End of the First World War to the End of the Second World War: A Story of Retrenchment, Renewal, and Triumph
As the guns fell silent on the battlefields of Europe in November 1918, Canada, like much of the world, paused to catch its breath. The country had emerged from the First World War with a proud, if somber, sense of achievement. More than 600,000 Canadians had served, and of them, approximately 61,000 had paid the ultimate price. Canada had come of age as a nation in the trenches of France and Flanders, earning a seat at the postwar negotiating table at Versailles. But the end of the war also heralded a period of retrenchment, uncertainty, and, ultimately, renewal in the nation’s military affairs—a slow but inexorable journey that would carry Canada into the next great global conflict.
Between the end of the First World War in 1918 and the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, the Canadian military would experience both a dramatic contraction and an equally remarkable resurgence. In this period, the country found itself grappling with the delicate balance between maintaining a military force adequate for national defense and avoiding the strains of militarism that had led Europe to catastrophe in 1914. By the time the world descended into the chaos of the Second World War, Canada had once again committed itself to the global cause, this time in an even greater capacity, marking its place as a growing power on the world stage.
The Post-War Decline (1918-1935)
At the conclusion of the First World War, the Canadian military was both a source of national pride and a logistical challenge. The Canadian Corps had been one of the most respected fighting forces in Europe, led by General Sir Arthur Currie, and had played key roles in decisive battles such as Vimy Ridge, Passchendaele, and the Hundred Days Offensive. But by the war’s end, Canada’s military was a colossal apparatus, far beyond what the country could afford in peacetime.
The immediate postwar years saw a rapid demobilization. Soldiers were eager to return home to civilian life, and the country, exhausted by the financial and human costs of war, was equally eager to move on. By 1920, the Canadian Expeditionary Force had been almost entirely disbanded, and the once-mighty military was reduced to a shadow of its former self. The Department of Militia and Defence, faced with severe budget cuts, struggled to maintain even a token force.
Canada’s population of less than nine million people could not support a large standing army, and there was little appetite for it. War had drained the national coffers, and the Great Depression of the 1930s further deepened the reluctance to invest in military readiness. Between 1919 and 1935, Canada’s military was reduced to what might be called a skeleton force. The Permanent Force, the regular army, shrank to around 4,000 men, mostly concentrated in training and administrative roles. The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), founded in 1910, languished with a few aging ships and little political support. The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), formed in 1924, remained small and underfunded, a mere appendage of the army.
Yet, even in these lean years, the Canadian military did not disappear entirely. Training programs continued for both the Permanent Force and the Non-Permanent Active Militia (essentially the reserve force), and there was a continuing belief, especially among military professionals, that Canada would once again need to prepare for conflict. The memory of the First World War, however, loomed large, and the idea of maintaining a large peacetime military was deeply unpopular with the public and politicians alike.
Canada on the Global Stage: A Quiet Interwar Period
During the interwar period, Canada’s place in the world remained that of a loyal member of the British Empire, but with a growing sense of independence. The Statute of Westminster in 1931 gave Canada full legislative independence from Britain, a reflection of its coming of age after the sacrifices of the First World War. This new autonomy meant that Canada, for the first time, could make independent decisions regarding its involvement in global conflicts. Still, the ties of empire were strong, and the British connection remained central to Canadian foreign policy.
Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the Canadian government, led by Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, pursued a foreign policy of cautious neutrality. Canada remained a signatory to the League of Nations, the international body created in the wake of World War I to prevent future conflicts, but there was little enthusiasm for military entanglements in Europe. The devastation of the First World War had instilled in many Canadians a deep aversion to war, and Mackenzie King, a pragmatic and cautious leader, was determined to avoid embroiling Canada in another European conflict unless absolutely necessary.
Meanwhile, the rise of militaristic regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan during the 1930s presented growing threats to global stability. Despite these ominous developments, Canada’s military remained woefully unprepared for modern warfare. Defense spending was minimal, and the equipment used by the Permanent Force was outdated. The army still relied on World War I-era rifles and artillery, while the RCAF had only a handful of modern aircraft, and the RCN was struggling with just a few operational vessels.
The Road to War: Canada’s Military Revival (1935-1939)
By the mid-1930s, the geopolitical situation in Europe and Asia had begun to deteriorate rapidly. The rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany, along with Benito Mussolini’s ambitions in the Mediterranean and Japan’s aggressive expansion in East Asia, signaled that another global conflict might be on the horizon. Although Mackenzie King was still committed to a policy of neutrality, the looming threat of war could no longer be ignored.
In 1936, the Canadian government initiated modest defense spending increases. Mackenzie King, while still cautious about rearmament, allowed for some expansion of the military in response to growing pressure from military leaders and international developments. The National Defence Act of 1937 established the framework for a gradual increase in military preparedness, but these steps were still tentative, and Canada’s military remained relatively weak compared to other major powers.
When war finally broke out in September 1939, following Hitler’s invasion of Poland, Canada was better prepared than it had been just a few years earlier, but still far from ready for large-scale conflict. However, the nation’s response was immediate and decisive. On September 10, 1939, a full week after Britain declared war on Germany, Canada made its own independent declaration of war, marking the first time in its history that it had done so as a sovereign nation. With this declaration, the military expansion that had begun in fits and starts during the 1930s was accelerated dramatically.
The Second World War: Canada’s Military Reborn (1939-1945)
The outbreak of the Second World War signaled the beginning of an extraordinary transformation in Canada’s military capacity. Over the next six years, Canada would expand its armed forces from a small, underfunded force to one of the most formidable and well-equipped militaries in the world.
The Expansion of the Canadian Army
At the start of the war, the Canadian army was small, ill-equipped, and largely untested. The Permanent Force numbered just over 4,000 men, and while the Non-Permanent Active Militia provided a pool of reservists, these forces were largely untrained and lacked modern equipment. Nevertheless, Canada was committed to playing an active role in the war.
The First Canadian Infantry Division, consisting of regulars and reservists hastily organized, was sent to Britain in late 1939, where it became part of the British Expeditionary Force. For much of 1940 and 1941, Canadian troops were stationed in Britain, waiting for their opportunity to engage the enemy. Canada’s early contribution to the war effort was largely defensive, focused on preparing for a possible German invasion of Britain.
However, by 1942, Canada’s military contribution had expanded significantly. The Canadian army participated in several key engagements throughout the war, beginning with the ill-fated Dieppe Raid in August 1942. The raid, intended to test German defenses and gather intelligence, ended in disaster, with nearly 900 Canadian soldiers killed and over 1,900 taken prisoner. Despite its failure, the raid provided valuable lessons for future amphibious operations.
The Royal Canadian Navy’s War
At the start of the war, the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) was a small force, comprising just a handful of ships. However, the RCN would become one of the most important components of Canada’s war effort. As the Battle of the Atlantic raged, Canadian naval forces played a crucial role in escorting convoys across the treacherous waters of the North Atlantic, ensuring that vital supplies reached Britain. By the war’s end, the RCN had grown into the third-largest Allied navy, with over 400 ships and more than 100,000 personnel.
The Royal Canadian Air Force: From Humble Beginnings to Major Force
The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) also expanded dramatically during the war. From a modest force of less than 4,000 personnel in 1939, the RCAF grew into one of the largest air forces in the world, with over 200,000 personnel by the war’s end. Canadian pilots and aircrew played key roles in several theaters of the war, including the Battle of Britain, the bombing campaigns over Germany, and the Allied invasions of North Africa and Normandy.
The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), established in 1939, was one of Canada’s most significant contributions to the Allied war effort. Under this program, thousands of pilots, navigators, and other aircrew from across the Commonwealth were trained at bases across Canada, far from the dangers of the European war zone.
Canada’s Role in Global Strategy
As Canada’s military capabilities grew, so too did its place in the global geopolitical landscape. While still a member of the British Empire, Canada’s independent role in the war became increasingly apparent. By 1943, Canada was playing a key role in Allied strategy. Canadian forces participated in the Italian Campaign, beginning with the landings in Sicily in July 1943 and continuing through the bloody battles up the Italian peninsula.
However, Canada’s most significant contribution came on D-Day, June 6, 1944, when the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division landed on Juno Beach during the Normandy Invasion. Canadian forces fought their way inland, securing key objectives and helping to establish the beachhead that would lead to the liberation of France. In the months that followed, Canadian forces continued to fight through Normandy, Belgium, and the Netherlands, playing a key role in the final Allied push into Germany in 1945.
A New World Order: Canada’s Position at War’s End
By the time the war ended in 1945, Canada had established itself as a significant military power. More than one million Canadians had served in the armed forces, and Canada had played a critical role in some of the most important battles of the war. The country had become a vital part of the Allied war machine, contributing to the defeat of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.
But just as important as the military victories was the way in which Canada had changed. The war had transformed the nation’s economy, society, and global standing. No longer just a loyal junior partner to Britain, Canada had emerged as an independent actor on the world stage, capable of asserting its interests and contributing meaningfully to global security. In the postwar years, this newfound stature would help shape Canada’s role in the founding of the United Nations and its ongoing contributions to peacekeeping and international diplomacy.
As Canada demobilized after the Second World War, it did so with the knowledge that it had proven itself once again. From the lean years of the interwar period to the hard-fought triumphs of the battlefields, the story of Canada’s military between 1918 and 1945 is one of resilience, renewal, and rising influence in a world forever changed by the fires of war.